Tactile Display Survey

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Tactile Display Type	Actuator	Actuator Mechanism	Number of Actuators	Interaction	Interesting Properties	Drawbacks	Reference
Electrostatic	Capacitor with Polyimide (PI) insulator	Capacitor formed of the conducting fluids in the fingertip acting as a plate and external electrodes acting as the other plate. A voltage induced across the capacitor creates attraction between the skin surface and the external electrode surface.	49	Friction	Reproduction of shear forces at the surface of the skin. Active touch device (sliding of finger).	High voltage (200-600V). Complex fabrication process of the PI layer. Fixed operating freq. (100 Hz). Sensitive to humidity of skin.	(Beebe et al., 1995) (Tang and Beebe, 1998)
Electrostatic	Capacitor with polymeric elastic dielectric	Stimulator tip mounted on a stack of capacitors with polymeric elastic dielectrics. When a control voltage is applied across the capacitors, the dielectric material contracts and the position of the stimulator tip is set.	No prototype implemented	Normal indentation	Low cost, lightweight and flexible material. Potential for high strain (up to a few mm).	High operating voltage (100-1000V). Little current knowledge of the material properties and manufacturing process.	(Jungman, Schlaak, 2002)
Rheological Fluid	Electrorheological (ER) fluid	ER fluid cell resisting the motion of the fingertip. The ER fluid changes from a liquid state to a solid state when exposed to an electric field. Altering the ER fluid’s state induces horizontal and vertical reactive forces during finger scanning.	25	Resistance to finger motion	Low energy consumption. Simple mechanical design. Active touch.	Problems, such as liquid accumulation, related to the use of an ER fluid. Tradeoff between the resolution of the array and the force of the response (due to the hazard of having high control voltages close to each other).	(Taylor et al., 1996)
Rheological Fluid	Magnetorheological (MR) fluid	MR fluid placed in a Plexiglas box surrounded by solenoids. Inducing a current in a solenoid creates a magnetic field that changes the fluid to a near-solid in the vicinity of the solenoid.	16	Shape Softness	Active exploration from the user. Both a kinesthetic device and a tactile device.	Low actuator spatial resolution. Need to wear latex glove. Large power dissipation (overheating).	(Bicchi et al., 2002)
Electromechanical	Piezoelectric	Bending bimorph carrying an L-shaped wire acting as the skin contactor.	100	Vibration	Large working bandwidth (20-400 Hz). High spatial resolution of actuators (1/mm²)	High control voltage (85 V). Complexity of manufacturing.	(Summers, Chanter, 2002)
		Piezoelectric ceramic plates are assembled next to each other in a staggered pattern to form a 1D array of contactors.	88	Normal indentation	Large bandwidth (0-1000 Hz) Simple design Controllable actuator amplitude	Limited to displaying tactile signals in a single dimension Mechanical coupling between the actuator plates Weak maximum displacements of the actuators (11µm)	(Van Doren et al., 1987)
		Mechanically amplified piezoelectric actuator driving a vibratory pin.	50	Vibration	Controllable actuator amplitude (5-57µm). Simple circuitry.	Fixed operating frequency (250 Hz). Limited to simple sensations of vibration.	(Ikei, 1997)
		Vertical movement of a contactor induced by a pair of piezoelectric levers.	48 (~4000 virtual)	Normal indentation	Vertical movement of up to 0.7mm. The device is mounted on a sliding apparatus. This permits the exploration of a large surface area without the need for an extensive number of actuators.	Small spatial resolution (~1 actuator/8mm²). High control voltage (200 V) coming out of a power supply card. Low bandwidth (20 Hz).	(Maucher et al., 2001)
		Skin contactors glued on a membrane that is deformed by a matrix of piezoelectric actuators.	64 (112 contactors)	Lateral stretch	High spatial resolution of contactors. Portability of device (e.g. can be put on a computer mouse). New mode of interaction (lateral stretch).	Small actuator displacement and force. High control voltage (±200V). Indirect control of the positions of the contactors.	(Hayward, Cruz-Hernàndez, 2000)
	Motor	RC servomotor slightly rotating a lever arm on which a skin contactor is fixed. The small rotation of the lever arm results in a vertical motion of the contactor. A sheet of rubber covers all the contactors to create a spatial low pass filter.	36	Normal indentation	High vertical displacement (up to 2 mm). Poor actuators spatial resolution (2 mm) compensated by a rubber sheet acting as a spatial low-pass filter. A mouse is attached to the display to permit active exploration.	Complex control system. Fairly big and cumbersome device. Low bandwidth (~25 Hz).	(Wagner et al., 2002)
		2 DOF mechanism consisiting of servomotors that pull and push laterally on metal pins in contact with the fingetip skin.	4	Lateral stretch	The pins/contactors have 2 DOF. Considerable displacement and force exhibited by the pins/contactors.	Fairly complex and large mechanical structure. Limtied to 4 actuators.	(Drewing et al., 2005)
		Miniature DC motors that remotely pull on spring-loaded pins through a trasmission pulley system made of nylon tendons. The tactile interaction occurs at the fingertip, but the actuators are located on the user's wrist.	16	Normal indentaion	Portable fingertip display Low mass High displacement (2.5mm)	Low bandwidth (in the tens of Hz) Friction in the transmission system	(Sarakoglou et al., 2005)
		The rotation of a step motor is transformed into vertical movement of a skin contactor by using a lead-screw mechanism.	4096	Normal indentation	High contactor force. Large contactor displacement (up to a few mm). Considerable surface area (200 mm x 170 mm) and large number of actuators.	Very slow refresh rate (~15 s). Limited to display shape (i.e. no texture) because of high contactor spatial resolution (3 mm). Complex and expensive control system.	(Shinohara et al., 1998)
	Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)	An SMA wire pulls a lever that lifts a skin contactor. The contactor indents the fingertip skin.	24	Normal indentation	High vertical extension of the contactors. Large contact force.	Hysteretic behavior of the SMA material. Low control bandwidth (~10 Hz) Large power dissipation.	(Kontarinis et al., 1995)
		Vertical pin fixed to the middle of a SMA wire like an arrow is mounted on the wire of a bow. Controlling the length of the SMA wire with an electric current moves the pin up and down. A latex rubber membrane acting as a seal is laid on top of the pins.	Line of 10	Normal indentation	Interesting bandwidth for a SMA device (30 Hz). Low strain of the SMA material amplified by an ingenious mechanical arrangement.	Hysteretic properties of the SMA material. Complex cooling system. Uses a line of skin contactors instead of a matrix distribution. As a consequence the line edges are felt.	(Wellman et al., 1997)
		SMA NiTi wire attached to a sprung pin in contact with the skin. An electric current induced in the SMA, makes it contract and pulls the pin down.	64	Normal indentation	Fairly large controllable strains of the SMA wires (up to 5% - 5 mm).	Low operating frequency (1-3 Hz). Large heat generation.	(Taylor et al., 1997)
	Electromagnetic micro-coil	Small electromagnetic actuators with micro-coils actuate flexible membranes at a specific frequency (also Peltier elements)	64	Vibration Heat	Low cost fabrication technology Relatively high density matrix (2mm interspace) High temporal resolution Coupling between thermal feedback and vibrotactile interactions.	Low static force Limited to vibrational and thermal interactions (i.e. no direct stimulation of slowly adapting skin mechanoreceptors)	(Khoudja and Hafez, 2004)
	Electromagnetic micro-coil	Two fixed coils and a moving magnet suspended by two helical springs act as a motor controlling the displacement of a long stainless steel probe.	400	Normal indentation	High contact force (up to a few Newtons) Large displacement of the actuators (up to 2.5 mm). Good actuator resolution.	Very large control system. Very complex and expensive device.	(Pawluk et al., 1998)
Air jet	Piston	Air jet produced by controlling the pressure through a tube with a piston.	1	Normal indentation (by air jet)	Stimulation of superficial receptors creating a sensation ("bug creeping under the skin") not reproducible with other TDs. No direct mechanical contact with the skin.	Impossibility to get a high-resolution array due to the size of the jet actuators.	(Asamura et al., 1998)
Thermal	Peltier element	Electric current controlling the temperature at the skin/element interface.	1	Heat	Very simple. Capable of simulating real sensations of the quality of materials under passive touch.	Only one single actuator. Incapable of presenting dynamic information such as pressure or strain.	(Ino et al., 1993)
Pneumatic	Pneumatic valve and dimple	Array of pressurized silicone tubing. By changing the pressure in the chambers, the displacement of vertical contactors in the tubes is controlled.	25	Normal indentation	Constant contact with the finger. No leakage and no pin friction. Controllable pin displacement (up to 0.7 mm). Highly portable.	Very low bandwidth (5 Hz). Low spatial resolution (actuators are 2.5 mm apart). Undesired operating vibration resulting from the PWM control signal.	(Moy et al., 2000)
Pneumatic	Pneumatic valve and dimple	Pneumatic inflow controlling the pressure and vibration of stainless steel pins. Pneumatic muscle generating lateral forces to simulate friction.	16	Normal indentation Vibration Shear	Compact and integrated package capable of three different types of stimulations. High normal force (~2N) High normal displacement (~3.5 mm) Large vibratory bandwidth (20-300 Hz)	Complex system Few contact pins with fairly high spacing separation (~1.75 mm).	(Caldwell et al., 1999)
Electrocutaneous	Electrostimulation	Visual images are captured by an optical sensor mounted on the display before being translated into electrical tactile stimulation on the fingertip.	16	Electric current felt as: 1- vague pressure 2- acute vibration	Can generate 2 distinct sensations (vague pressure and acute vibration) Mounted on a force sensor to regulate the sensation magnitude and decrease discomfort. Sensor directly mounted on tactile display.	Fairly low spatial resolution (actuators are at least 2mm apart) given the technology	(Kajimoto et al., 2003)
Electrocutaneous	Electrostimulation	Active electrode becomes electrically connected to ground through the fingertip when the user touches it. The current passing through the finger creates a tactile sensation of vibration and pressure.	49	Electric current	Simple method. Possibility of high tactile resolution. Flexibility (e.g. can be put in a glove).	Can cause pain. Adaptation to the stimulus occurs very quickly.	(Kaczmarek et al., 1997)
Others	Pressure Valve	Drawing air from a suction hole contacting with the palm creates the illusion that the skin is pushed by a "muddler".	~20	Suction pressure	No interference between neighboring stimulators Two kinds of basic patterns of stimulation (large holes and small holes)	Very low spatial resolution (only appropriate for the palm of the hand) Need for regulation of air pressure	(Makino et al., 2003)
	Surface Acoustic Wave	Burst of surface acoustic waves (SAWs) are used to modulate the amount of surface friction applied to a slider on which the user's finger rests. This allows the control of the shear stress applied on the finger's skin by the slider while moving. The SAWs are created by interdigital transducers.	n/a	Shear stress	Original and unexplored method	Not a direct-contact tactile display.	(Nara et al., 2001)
	PZT transducer (producing ultrasound)	Elastic gel is covered with an ultrasound reflector and is radiated with ultrasound. The net effect is one of induced pressure on the fingertip lying on the reflector.	10 and 30	Accoustic radiation pressure Vibration	High spatial resolution (1mm) High refresh rate Free from contact problems.	Bulky system Weak continuous pressure force	(Iwamoto et al., 2004)
	Ionic Conducting Polymer gel Film (ICPF)	ICPF cilium-shaped actuator submerged in water. Applying an electric field between the surfaces of the actuator makes it bend.	10	Vibration (at high freq.) Shear (at low freq.) Brushing	The softness of the ICPF material allows for very delicate touching. Low driving voltage (under 1.5V). Fairly high frequency operation (up to more than 100 Hz).	ICPF actuators require to be submerged in water in order to bend. Low actuator resolution.	(Konyo et al., 2000)

Bibliography

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(Beebe et al., 1995)	Beebe, D. J., Hymel, C. M., Kaczmarek, K. A., Tyler, M. E., “A Polyimide-on-silicon Electrostatic Fingertip Tactile Display”, in Proc. 17th Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc., Montreal, Canada, IEEE, pp. 1545-1546, 1995.
(Bicchi et al., 2002)	Bicchi, A., Scilingo, E.P., Sgambelluri, N. and De Rossi, D., “Haptic Interfaces based on Magnetorheological Fluids”, Proc. 2th Int. Conf. Eurohaptics 2002, pages 6-11, July 2002.
(Caldwell et al., 1999)	Caldwell, D. G., Tsagarakis, N. and Giesler, C., “An integrated Tactile/Shear Feedback Array for Stimulation of Finger Mechanoreceptor”, in Proc. of IEEE International Conference on Robotics & Automation, Detroit, Michigan, pp. 287-292, May 1999.
(Drewing, 2005)	Drewing, K., Fritschi, M., Zopf, R, M.O. Ernst and Buss, M.: First Evaluation of A Novel Tactile Display Exerting Shear Force via Lateral Displacement. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception 2(2), April 2005.
(Hayward, Cruz-Hernàndez, 2000)	Hayward, V. and Cruz-Hernàndez, J. M., “Tactile Display Device Using Distributed Lateral Skin Stretch”, in Proc. of the 8th Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems, ASME IMECE, DSC-69-2:1309–1314, 2000.
(Ikei et al., 1997)	Ikei, Y., Wakamatsu, K., Fukuda, S., “Texture Presentation by Vibratory Tactile Display”, IEEE Annual Virtual Reality International Symposium, pp. 199-205, 1997.
(Ino et al., 1997)	Ino, S., Shimizu, S., Odagawa, T., Sato, M., Takahashi, M., Izumi, T., Ifukube, T., “A Tactile Display for Presenting Quality of Materials by Changing the Temperature of Skin Surface”, IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Communication, pp. 220-224, 1993.
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(Kontarinis et al., 1995)	Kontarinis, D. A., Son, J. S., Peine, W., Howe, R. D., “A Tactile Shape Sensing and Display System for Teleoperated Manipulation”, IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp. 641-646, 1995.
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(Wellman et al., 1997)	Wellman, P. S., Peine, W. J., Favalora, G. E., Howe, R. D., “Mechanical Design and Control of a High-Bandwidth Shape Memory Alloy Tactile Display”, International Symposium on Experimental Robotics, pp. 56-66, Spain 1997.